Punctuation: Semicolon

Punctuation: Semicolon

From Manual of Style by University of Chicago Press:

A semicolon is used to mark the division of a sentence somewhat more independent than that marked by a comma.

I. Use a semicolon to connect two or more independent clauses.

It is so in war; it is so in economic life; it cannot be otherwise in religion.

Each division of the above sentence could stand independently. Breaking the thought into three sentences would slow it down. Connecting the separate thoughts with semicolons creates a flow and/or sense of urgency.

II. Note that a semicolon may replace the use of a comma and conjunction.

It is so in war, and it is so in economic life, and it cannot be otherwise in religion.

Use either a semicolon OR a comma and a conjunction, but never both together.

 III. Use a semicolon before transitional adverbs.

Sarah wanted to buy a Pomeranian; however, her landlord nixed the idea.

Then, however, thus, hence, indeed, accordingly, besides, and therefore are considered adverbs rather than conjunctions, and therefore may be preceded by a semicolon when used to transition from one clause to another.

When the adverbs yet and so are used transitionally as conjunctions, they are preceded by a comma:

It was raining, so I borrowed Ralph's umbrella.

IV. In enumerations use a semicolon between the different links.

The defendant, in justification of his act, pleaded that (i) he was despondent over the loss of his wife; (2) he was out of work; (3) he had had nothing to eat for two days; (4) he was under the influence of liquor.

And:

The membership of the international commission was made up as follows: France, 4; Germany, 5; Great Britain, 1.

And also:

 Presidents Hadley, of Yale; Eliot, of Harvard; Butler, of Columbia; and Angell, of Michigan.

III. In Scripture references a semicolon is used to separate passages containing chapters. 

Gen. 2:3-6, 9, 14; 3:17; chap. 5; 6:15.

VII. Place a semicolon outside of quotation marks.

John's favorite poem is “Ozymandias”; he  memorized it to recite to his friends.

The semicolon should be placed outside the quotation marks, unless a part of the quotation.

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Punctuation: Colon

Punctuation: Colon

From Manual of Style by University of Chicago Press:

A colon marks a break in grammatical construction while emphasizing the relationship between the parts. It represents a break greater than that indicated by a semicolon and less than that indicated by a period.

I. Emphasizes a close connection

The fear of death is universal: even the lowest animals instinctively shrink from annihilation.

A colon is commonly used to emphasize a close connection in thought between two clauses, each of which forms a complete sentence and which could instead be separated by a period. 

II. Separates from illustration or amplification

Most countries have a national flower: France the lily, England the rose, etc.

A colon may be used to separate a clause which is grammatically complete from a second which contains an illustration or amplification of its meaning

III. Introduces a formal statement, extract, or dialogue 

The rule may be stated thus: Love one another.

Charles: “Where are you going?”
George: “To the pub.”

A colon may be used to introduce a formal statement, an extract, a speech in a dialogue, etc., (unless this is preceded by a conjunction, like “that,” immediately connecting it with what goes before).

IV. Takes the place of an implied phrase

This is true of only two nations—the wealthiest, though not the largest, in Europe: Great Britain and France.

The colon thus often takes the place of an implied “namely,” “as follows,” “for instance,” or a similar phrase. Where such word or phrase is used, it should be followed by a colon if what follows consists of one or more grammatically complete clauses; otherwise, by a comma.

V. Follows an introductory remark

Mr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen:

Put a colon after the introductory remark of a speaker addressing the chairman or the audience.

VI. Separates hours and minutes, chapter and verse  

4:30 p.m.

Matt. 2:5-13

Put a colon between hours and minutes in time indications, and between chapter and verse in Scripture passages.

VII. Place a colon outside of quotation marks

Susan writes under the head of “Notes and Comments”:  no one knows who she is.

The colon should be placed outside the quotation marks, unless a part of the quotation.

VIII. Material following a colon sometimes begins with a capital

The rule may be stated thus: Love one another.

Charles: “Where are you going?”
George: “To the pub.”

If what follows a colon is a formal statement, more than one sentence, a speech in dialogue, or a quotation, it should begin with a capital.

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Punctuation: Period

Punctuation: Period

From Manual of Style by University of Chicago Press:

A period is used to indicate the end of a complete sentence.

I. Put a period after most abbreviations.

Macmillan & Co., Mr. Smith, St. Paul, No. 1, Chas., ibid.

A. Treat the metric symbols as abbreviations:

10 mm.

B. Exceptions:

1. Do not use periods with the chemical symbols, nor the phrase “per cent.”

O, Fe; 2 per cent

2. Do not use a period, in technical matter, after the recognized abbreviations for epochs:

AD (Anno Domini)
BC (Before Christ)
CE (Common Era)
BCE (Before Common Era)
IE (Indo-European)

OE (Old English)

II. Use no period after Roman numerals.

Vol. IV

A. This is true even when Roman numerals have the value of ordinals: 

Louis XVI was on the throne.

B. Exception: 

Roman numerals used in an outline are followed by a period. 

III. When using quotation marks, the period is placed inside.

Please read Tennyson’s “In Memoriam.”

Sylvie said, “It’s raining.”

IV. When using parentheses, the period is placed according to use. 

A. Place the period inside the parentheses

when the matter enclosed is an independent sentence and forms no part of the preceding sentence:

 John dropped the hammer on his toe. (It hurt badly.)

B. Place the period outside the parentheses

when the matter enclosed is an independent sentence is part of the preceding sentence.

Fried sweets are tempting (for instance, doughnuts).

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Punctuation: Names of marks

Punctuation: Names of marks

From Why We Punctuate by William Livingston Klein and English Grammar; Punctuation and Capitalization; Letter Writing published by The International Textbook Company:

The names of the principal marks were given to them by the Greek grammarians. The name of each mark is the name of the group of words with which the mark was used.

I. Period (.)

John went home.

The period (periodos, “a way around”) marked a complete circuit of words, and the picture in the word is the circular track of a race course.The group of words which we call a sentence, the Greeks called a period. They arbitrarily marked its end by a dot, and called the dot also a “period.” We retain the name of the mark.

II. Colon (:)

John took with him his tools: hammer, saw, level.

The colon (kolon, “a limb,” “half of a race course”) was one of two main divisions of a long compound sentence. From the part or division the name was transferred to the mark used in indicating the divisions. We retain the name of the mark in our word colon.

III. Semicolon (;)

 John dropped the hammer on his toe; it hurt badly.

The semicolon is a mark of later date; and, as its name implies, it falls between the comma and the colon in its character and use. Strictly, the semicolon should be used in separating a sentence into fourths; but, for obvious reasons,  no such limitation is possible. It indicates a degree of separation less than that made by the colon, but only in name, not in reality, is it a half-colon. 

IV. Comma (,)

John hopped, howled, cried, and cursed.

The comma (komma, “a segment;” koptein, “to cut”) denotes the shortest separation in ideas or construction between sentence elements.

IV. Question mark (?)

Had John broken his toe?

The question mark is said to have been made from the initial and final letters of the Latin word Questio, the Q being written above the o; thus,

 V. Exclamation mark (!)

John had broken his toe!

The exclamation mark is believed to have been formed from the letters of the Latin interjection io, expressing joy; thus, 

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Punctuation is used to group words

Punctuation is used to group words.

From Why We Punctuate by William Livingston Klein:

The fundamental purpose of punctuation is to use marks to group words.

I. Meaning depends on grouping.

John has gone home.

The meaning of language depends very largely upon the groupings of its words. In very simple language, words are so placed that each word is related to a word or words immediately or closely following or preceding it. In such language the reader is hardly conscious that the words are grouped, except into sentences; and no mark may be required, except the end-mark.

II. Grouping clarifies when there is more than one possible meaning.

The prisoner said the witness was a convicted thief.

vs. 

The prisoner, said the witness, was a convicted thief.

In more complex language the grouping within the sentence becomes manifest to the reader, and two constructions and two meanings of the language often become possible. In order to notify the reader which meaning the language is intended to convey, the writer may use a punctuation mark to flag the point where the meaning may be mistaken. The reader notes the flag and thus keeps on the right line of thought-development.

III. When to use a mark, and what mark to use, are determined by convention or by reason.

In the absence of marks, the relationship between words are either easily mistaken or not quickly understood.

Mr. Smith came to the city in 1985 and moved into the house at 1985 Wabash Avenue. He brought with him 1,985 horses, valued at $198, 500.00.

How does punctuation enable the reader to obtain the meaning at one point in the above sentences, and so to group the language (figures) at another point that he can apprehend the meaning at a glance?

A. Convention

Because of convention (well-nigh universal usage), the above date and street numbers are read nineteen hundred eighty-five.

In the fourth number in our example above we use a comma to do one grouping, and a period to make another (the cents) group. We call the use of the period in this number conventional punctuation.

B. Reason

But the same number in the next sentence is read one thousand nine hundred eighty-five.

As we all know, in arithmetical notation three figures form a group, the groups so formed being named units, thousands, millions, etc. It is therefore evident that, in reading a number containing two or more such groups, the eye will be aided if the groups are indicated by some mark. (We here use the comma and the period for this purpose.) Although the left-hand group of a number may not be full, a figure in that group takes the name of the group, and so we mark it off. Thus we use commas in two of the numbers in our example, one of which (1,985) has only one figure in the second (thousand) group. This we call punctuation by reason, for we thus point off natural groups.

We do not use the comma to group the figures in the same number (1985) used in two other places in the above example. Because date and street numbers of four figures are read in groups of two figures each the eye readily does the grouping, and a mark is not needed as an aid in the grouping. This is also punctuation by reason.

C. Our problem

Our problem is to find a reason for the use of every punctuation mark, and to be ready to point out what seems to us good conventional usage in punctuation for which we can find no reason.

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Punctuation: Revealing meaning

Punctuation: Revealing meaning

From Why We Punctuate by William Livingston Klein and Handbook for Newspaper Workers by Grant Milnor Hyde:

A mark of punctuation is used because it has a meaning and serves a useful purpose in written language.

I. The function of marks is twofold:

A. To reveal the real meaning of written language.

Do not use a punctuation mark unless you see a logical reason for it. Consider each case logically and have a reason for every mark you use. Be ready to defend your usage.

B. To reveal such meaning at a glance.

Punctuation was invented to make writing clear and easy to read. Use marks enough to insure clearness — and no more.

II. Marks perform this function in three ways:

A. By breaking up apparent groups of words, which readily form themselves into new groups.

Marks are used to separate entire sentences; these include the period, the question mark, the exclamation mark, the colon at the end of an introductory sentence, and the quotation mark when concerned with entire sentences.

Now you may go. Come back later.

B. By showing the relations between groups.

Marks are used with individual words, parts of words, or figures; these include certain uses of the colon, certain uses of the period, the uses of the hyphen, the uses of the apostrophe, and some of the uses of quotation marks.

Vegetables are good for you: kale, spinach, carrots, beets.

C. By characterizing a group of words.

Marks are used to separate parts of sentences; these include the comma and semicolon in all their uses and the dash in most of its uses.

Boys, like men, may be courageous for principle's sake.

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Faulty idiom: Wrong word combination

Faulty idiom: Wrong word combination

From Everyday Uses of English by Maurice Harley Weseen and The Century Handbook of Writing by Garland Greever:

A faulty idiom is an expression which, though correct in grammar and general meaning, combines words in a manner contrary to usage.

I. Some words go well together and others do not.

“I enjoy reading.”

In selecting words with a view to their accuracy, we must take into account the fact that some words naturally go well together and some others do not. Our words may be entirely correct from the point of view of their individual meanings and of their individual suitability to the occasion before us and yet not be acceptable because they do not combine in accordance with generally recognized usage. “I enjoy to read” is wrong, not because the words offend logic or grammar, but merely because people do not instinctively make that combination of words. “I like to read” and “I enjoy reading” are good idioms.

II. Idioms are established by custom rather than logic.

“My house is different from yours.”

It is difficult to explain by grammar or logic why one word combination is accepted and another is not. Grammar or logic can never furnish an adequate explanation of this fact. Of two forms, equally justifiable by all rules of grammar, we instinctively accept the one and reject the other. It is this unscientific nature of the idiom which makes it so difficult to deal with. If a man says, “I done it as good as I could,” we can explain his errors to him in a very definite way and we can justify our corrections by an appeal to very definite grammatical rules. But if he says, “My house is different than yours,” rather than “My house is different from yours,” the task of explaining his error is much more difficult. In the latter case our criticism is not that he has violated any specific grammatical rule but that he has committed an offense against good idiomatic English. His usage is not in conformity with the particular phraseology which has received general recognition by knowledgeable users of the language. He displays a lack of appreciation of the spirit of English.

III. Violations result from the incorrect use of prepositions.

Many violations of English idiom result, as in the examples given above, from an incorrect use of prepositions. The incorrect combination “different than” is probably the most common of all of these violations. It needs to be guarded against with special care, particularly when the two words different and from are separated by intervening words. To make a list of English idioms would be equivalent to making a new dictionary. The following examples are intended only to represent some types of everyday idioms which everyone should master:

abandoned to abhorrence of abide with abound in abstain from accede to access to accordance with acquainted with acquitted of adapted to admit of agreeable to	He was abandoned to his fate. His abhorrence of cruelty is marked. John abides with his parents. That house abounds in doors. He abstains from smoking. They finally acceded to our wishes. He has access to all meetings. This is in accordance with your request. I am well acquainted with him. He was acquitted of the crime. Some are not adapted to office work. The plan admits of no compromise. Your terms are agreeable to me.
angry with apology for approve of attitude toward averse to bargain for bereaved of bestow upon boast of border upon capable of coincide with commit to comply with conducive to confidence in connect with conscious of consign to consult with contrary to convince of decide upon defraud of desirous of desist from devolve upon different from difficulty in disapprove of dislike to dispense with disposed to emerge from encroach upon endowed with equivalent to estimated at exception to expert in expressive of familiar with fearful of fondness for foreign to	James is angry with John. He made no apology for his conduct. I heartily approve of your methods. What is your attitude toward disarmament? He is averse to trying anything new. They bargained for the whole stock. Death bereaved him of his best friend. Gifts of great value were bestowed upon him. Some people boast of trifles. That borders upon the commonplace. He is capable of doing excellent work. His view coincides with mine. Commit your thoughts to writing. We are glad to comply with your request. Such conduct is not conducive to health. I have confidence in his judgment. This house is connected with the central station. He was not conscious of his error. The goods were consigned to you. You should consult with a specialist. That is contrary to our usual procedure. Are you convinced of his sincerity? They decided upon immediate action. Jones was defrauded of a fortune. We are desirous of pleasing you. Please desist from your cutting remarks. It devolved upon me to finish the job. The Pacific is different from the Atlantic. Do you have difficulty in writing correctly? I disapprove of your slovenly habits. He has taken a dislike to me. We could not dispense with his services. Smith is always disposed to have his own way. They emerged from the crisis. Our territory is being encroached upon. He is endowed with unusual vigor. That is equivalent to a confession. Their resources are estimated at a million dollars. He took exception to our statements. Are you expert in letter writing? His letter is expressive of regret. Jones is familiar with contemporary novels. I am fearful of the consequences. He has a fondness for reading. That is foreign to the present subject.
free from frown upon glad of glance at glow with grateful to grieve at guard against hanker after hinder from impose upon inconsistent with independent of inferior to inseparable from insist upon interfere with intervene between	No one of us is free from faults. Why frown upon all things new? We are glad of the chance to serve you. He merely glances at the daily paper. Praise makes one glow with pride. We are grateful to you for your letter. Why grieve at every loss? Guard against errors of speech. He hankers after greater gains. Nothing can hinder him from succeeding. Do not impose upon his good nature. This is inconsistent with our general policy. We are independent of any trust. These goods are inferior to those. Credits are inseparable from collections. Always insist upon this brand. Never interfere with legitimate plans. What intervened between Monday and Friday?
intrude upon involved in irritated by jealous of jeer at join with known to liken to listen to made of meddle with mistrustful of need of object to observant of offend against opposite to partake of partial to participate in patience with permit of persevere in pleased with possessed of productive of profit by prone to quarrel with	Don't intrude upon busy men. Smith is involved in a great scheme. He is irritated by every interruption. It is foolish to be jealous of anyone. Jeering at others never pays. Will you join with us on this occasion? He is well known to us. One might liken him to Napoleon. Listen to good advice. This box is made of wood. Do not meddle with the affairs of others. I am mistrustful of his honesty. The house is in need of repairs. Do you object to long letters? He is observant of every detail. Some words offend against good taste. His view is opposite to mine. We shall all partake of the profits. Jones is partial to the block form. What games do you participate in? I have no patience with such manners. That permits of two interpretations. Persevere in your work and you will succeed. We were well pleased with your offer. He is possessed of a large estate. Dishonesty is productive of serious results. We can profit by the experience of others. Many people are prone to put off their work. I have no quarrel with him.
refrain from regard for rely upon remit to repent of resemblance to resolve upon save from seek for seize upon sensible of significant of sorry for suitable for superior to surprised at suspected of sympathize with taste for think of tired of touch upon true to unite with useful for view of	It is well to refrain from fault finding. He has no regard for propriety. You can rely upon his statement. Please remit to this office. Some day he will repent of his sins. This letter has much resemblance to that. What course have you resolved upon? Very little was saved from the wreck. Jones is seeking for a better position. Seize upon this opportunity! He is sensible of his defects. This report is significant of many things. I feel sorry for him. Your letter is not suitable for the occasion. The colonel is superior to the captain. He was surprised at my silence. To be suspected of theft must be disagreeable. I can sympathize with poor speakers. He has no taste for drama. John thinks only of money. The world is tired of war. The speaker touched upon several subjects. Be true to your ideal. Will you unite with us in this endeavor? This tool is useful for many purposes. In view of the circumstances, we cancel the order.
void of want of witness of worthy of yield to	He seems to be void of common sense. For want of reserves, they went bankrupt. I was a witness of the collision. He is not worthy of the honor. He will not yield to the demands.

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Solecism: Bad syntax or bad idiom

Solecism: Bad syntax or bad idiom

From A Higher English Grammar by Alexander Bain.

Incorrectly constructed sentences are called solecisms.  

I. Bad syntax / grammar

My father, my mother, and myself live in Seattle.

Here the speaker or writer incorrectly uses a reflexive pronoun rather than the correct subjective pronoun: “My father, my mother, and I live in Seattle.”

High school students are done good by having to take three years of science.

There is an error in the tense of the verb “done,” and in the use of the adjective “good” to modify it. This sentence should read, “High school students benefit from having to take three years of science.”

This car needs washed.

The being verb has been omitted: “This car needs to be washed.”

II. Violation of idiom

There may be solecisms that are grammatically correct, but they are violations of idiom.

I have hunger.

If we say “I have hunger,” we do not commit bad grammar; still the combination is not English, it is French.

He was acquitted to the crime.

“He was acquitted to the crime” is not according to idiom. The sentence should read, “He was acquitted of the crime.”

We are glad for the chance to serve you.

This is not according to idiom. The sentence should read, “We are glad of the chance to serve you.”

Violation of idiom becomes harder to recognize when living in an area where the violation has become the regional norm.

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