Punctuation: Colon

Punctuation: Colon

From Manual of Style by University of Chicago Press:

A colon marks a break in grammatical construction while emphasizing the relationship between the parts. It represents a break greater than that indicated by a semicolon and less than that indicated by a period.

I. Emphasizes a close connection

The fear of death is universal: even the lowest animals instinctively shrink from annihilation.

A colon is commonly used to emphasize a close connection in thought between two clauses, each of which forms a complete sentence and which could instead be separated by a period. 

II. Separates from illustration or amplification

Most countries have a national flower: France the lily, England the rose, etc.

A colon may be used to separate a clause which is grammatically complete from a second which contains an illustration or amplification of its meaning

III. Introduces a formal statement, extract, or dialogue 

The rule may be stated thus: Love one another.

Charles: “Where are you going?”
George: “To the pub.”

A colon may be used to introduce a formal statement, an extract, a speech in a dialogue, etc., (unless this is preceded by a conjunction, like “that,” immediately connecting it with what goes before).

IV. Takes the place of an implied phrase

This is true of only two nations—the wealthiest, though not the largest, in Europe: Great Britain and France.

The colon thus often takes the place of an implied “namely,” “as follows,” “for instance,” or a similar phrase. Where such word or phrase is used, it should be followed by a colon if what follows consists of one or more grammatically complete clauses; otherwise, by a comma.

V. Follows an introductory remark

Mr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen:

Put a colon after the introductory remark of a speaker addressing the chairman or the audience.

VI. Separates hours and minutes, chapter and verse  

4:30 p.m.

Matt. 2:5-13

Put a colon between hours and minutes in time indications, and between chapter and verse in Scripture passages.

VII. Place a colon outside of quotation marks

Susan writes under the head of “Notes and Comments”:  no one knows who she is.

The colon should be placed outside the quotation marks, unless a part of the quotation.

VIII. Material following a colon sometimes begins with a capital

The rule may be stated thus: Love one another.

Charles: “Where are you going?”
George: “To the pub.”

If what follows a colon is a formal statement, more than one sentence, a speech in dialogue, or a quotation, it should begin with a capital.

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Punctuation: Period

Punctuation: Period

From Manual of Style by University of Chicago Press:

A period is used to indicate the end of a complete sentence.

I. Put a period after most abbreviations.

Macmillan & Co., Mr. Smith, St. Paul, No. 1, Chas., ibid.

A. Treat the metric symbols as abbreviations:

10 mm.

B. Exceptions:

1. Do not use periods with the chemical symbols, nor the phrase “per cent.”

O, Fe; 2 per cent

2. Do not use a period, in technical matter, after the recognized abbreviations for epochs:

AD (Anno Domini)
BC (Before Christ)
CE (Common Era)
BCE (Before Common Era)
IE (Indo-European)

OE (Old English)

II. Use no period after Roman numerals.

Vol. IV

A. This is true even when Roman numerals have the value of ordinals: 

Louis XVI was on the throne.

B. Exception: 

Roman numerals used in an outline are followed by a period. 

III. When using quotation marks, the period is placed inside.

Please read Tennyson’s “In Memoriam.”

Sylvie said, “It’s raining.”

IV. When using parentheses, the period is placed according to use. 

A. Place the period inside the parentheses

when the matter enclosed is an independent sentence and forms no part of the preceding sentence:

 John dropped the hammer on his toe. (It hurt badly.)

B. Place the period outside the parentheses

when the matter enclosed is an independent sentence is part of the preceding sentence.

Fried sweets are tempting (for instance, doughnuts).

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Punctuation: Names of marks

Punctuation: Names of marks

From Why We Punctuate by William Livingston Klein and English Grammar; Punctuation and Capitalization; Letter Writing published by The International Textbook Company:

The names of the principal marks were given to them by the Greek grammarians. The name of each mark is the name of the group of words with which the mark was used.

I. Period (.)

John went home.

The period (periodos, “a way around”) marked a complete circuit of words, and the picture in the word is the circular track of a race course.The group of words which we call a sentence, the Greeks called a period. They arbitrarily marked its end by a dot, and called the dot also a “period.” We retain the name of the mark.

II. Colon (:)

John took with him his tools: hammer, saw, level.

The colon (kolon, “a limb,” “half of a race course”) was one of two main divisions of a long compound sentence. From the part or division the name was transferred to the mark used in indicating the divisions. We retain the name of the mark in our word colon.

III. Semicolon (;)

 John dropped the hammer on his toe; it hurt badly.

The semicolon is a mark of later date; and, as its name implies, it falls between the comma and the colon in its character and use. Strictly, the semicolon should be used in separating a sentence into fourths; but, for obvious reasons,  no such limitation is possible. It indicates a degree of separation less than that made by the colon, but only in name, not in reality, is it a half-colon. 

IV. Comma (,)

John hopped, howled, cried, and cursed.

The comma (komma, “a segment;” koptein, “to cut”) denotes the shortest separation in ideas or construction between sentence elements.

IV. Question mark (?)

Had John broken his toe?

The question mark is said to have been made from the initial and final letters of the Latin word Questio, the Q being written above the o; thus,

 V. Exclamation mark (!)

John had broken his toe!

The exclamation mark is believed to have been formed from the letters of the Latin interjection io, expressing joy; thus, 

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Punctuation is used to group words

Punctuation is used to group words.

From Why We Punctuate by William Livingston Klein:

The fundamental purpose of punctuation is to use marks to group words.

I. Meaning depends on grouping.

John has gone home.

The meaning of language depends very largely upon the groupings of its words. In very simple language, words are so placed that each word is related to a word or words immediately or closely following or preceding it. In such language the reader is hardly conscious that the words are grouped, except into sentences; and no mark may be required, except the end-mark.

II. Grouping clarifies when there is more than one possible meaning.

The prisoner said the witness was a convicted thief.

vs. 

The prisoner, said the witness, was a convicted thief.

In more complex language the grouping within the sentence becomes manifest to the reader, and two constructions and two meanings of the language often become possible. In order to notify the reader which meaning the language is intended to convey, the writer may use a punctuation mark to flag the point where the meaning may be mistaken. The reader notes the flag and thus keeps on the right line of thought-development.

III. When to use a mark, and what mark to use, are determined by convention or by reason.

In the absence of marks, the relationship between words are either easily mistaken or not quickly understood.

Mr. Smith came to the city in 1985 and moved into the house at 1985 Wabash Avenue. He brought with him 1,985 horses, valued at $198, 500.00.

How does punctuation enable the reader to obtain the meaning at one point in the above sentences, and so to group the language (figures) at another point that he can apprehend the meaning at a glance?

A. Convention

Because of convention (well-nigh universal usage), the above date and street numbers are read nineteen hundred eighty-five.

In the fourth number in our example above we use a comma to do one grouping, and a period to make another (the cents) group. We call the use of the period in this number conventional punctuation.

B. Reason

But the same number in the next sentence is read one thousand nine hundred eighty-five.

As we all know, in arithmetical notation three figures form a group, the groups so formed being named units, thousands, millions, etc. It is therefore evident that, in reading a number containing two or more such groups, the eye will be aided if the groups are indicated by some mark. (We here use the comma and the period for this purpose.) Although the left-hand group of a number may not be full, a figure in that group takes the name of the group, and so we mark it off. Thus we use commas in two of the numbers in our example, one of which (1,985) has only one figure in the second (thousand) group. This we call punctuation by reason, for we thus point off natural groups.

We do not use the comma to group the figures in the same number (1985) used in two other places in the above example. Because date and street numbers of four figures are read in groups of two figures each the eye readily does the grouping, and a mark is not needed as an aid in the grouping. This is also punctuation by reason.

C. Our problem

Our problem is to find a reason for the use of every punctuation mark, and to be ready to point out what seems to us good conventional usage in punctuation for which we can find no reason.

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